Indigenous Cultures and Education

Indigenous Cultures and Education

(LEB335Week 6, Semester 2, 1999 )

Introduction

In this presentation, I will be outlining issues that continue to impact on Indigenous students, families and communities today. Before doing so, however, I wish to draw to your attention the following excerpt from a paper I prepared some years ago - a paper we revisited only recently:

Aboriginal education began in the early stages of British settlement. Although education systems were created in each of the states of Australia in the second half of the nineteenth century, the colonial government assumed some responsibility for ‘educating’ Aborigines by establishing a school in 1814 expressly for the purpose of "civilizing and Christianizing Natives of the Port Jackson area". (Rowley, 1972) Colonizers planned to use education as a controlling mechanism through which Aboriginal families would conform with British social mores.

"The school failed. Lippman (1976) suggests in hindsight that three factors contributed to this:
a) Elders feared that the school was destroying Aboriginal values and did not give their support;

b) Students found the curriculum irrelevant; and

c) British colonists resented government expenditure on Aborigines whom they believed to be inferior.

I believe, sadly, that the same factors could be applied to education for Indigenous students today - over one hundred and eighty years later. Based on reflections of this, my presentation today deals with how we might define the term "partner"; and the major issues impacting on Indigenous students, families and communities, which we have grouped into the following categories:

• Overarching issues are what they have always been: issues of culture, ...of identity, ...of power, each manifested in various ways during our relatively short history of participation in Western education, and yet all infused both overtly and covertly with elements of racism and
• Specific (current) issues : (a) those extrinsic, and (b) those intrinsic, to schools and education institutions.

Defining the term "partner"

The terms "partnerships" and "partners" are frequently used in relation to education. In coming to understand what these terms mean, as a group we might have some idea what is expected of us as educators, students, parents and community members. The New Shorter Oxford Dictionary (1992:2111) includes the following definitions:

partner, n.

1. A person who possesses something jointly with another or others.

2. A person who takes part with another or others in doing something; an associate; a colleague; an accomplice.

3. A person who is associated with another or others in the carrying on of a business with shared risks and profits.

On examination of these meanings, we believe that all three are relevant to the use of the term "partnerships" in an education context.

The first definition suggests that there is a need to determine what it is that we as a group jointly possess - the school, the learning process, the future of our society, our country...?

The second definition implies an equally shared enterprise, task or responsibility. Such an arrangement must surely recognise and value the skills, knowledge, experiences and (often) reputation of associates, colleagues, etc, and utilise such expertise to the fullest.

With reference to the third definition, if education is seen as a business (recent corporatisation of education systems and the shift to school-based management imply that this is so); or an investment (spending on education as "an investment in the future"); then it follows that there should be some understanding of the possible "risks" and "profits" that might influence the outcomes of a partnership arrangement.

In the same way that any "good" business person takes the time to explore all actual and probable factors before entering into a partnership with another person or group, there is a need to know what our partners bring to the arrangement, to focus on strengths and develop strategies to overcome weaknesses. To do this in terms of partnerships with Indigenous students, parents and community members, it is essential to have some understanding of issues of culture, identity and power within the context of the "business" we plan to undertake.

The issue of culture

The term "culture" is one of the most complicated words in the English language. It can mean many things. In an education context, issues in relation to Indigenous Australians often arise, and just as often are referred to as issues of "cultural difference", "cultural inappropriateness", "cultural relevance", "a clash of cultures", and the like. Rarely is it explained what is meant by these terms. Is it any wonder that many teachers experience difficulty when attempting to address such issues?

There are numerous academic discussions on the concept of culture. In an unpublished paper titled "What is this thing called ‘Culture’", Howard Groome (1996:4), refers to many of these discussions and how they might relate to Aboriginal education. He writes,

Faced with the evidence of the destructive effects of traditional understandings of the word culture many theorists over the last decade have advocated new interpretations of the term. There is now a range of concepts being discussed. All of these share one aspect in common. They have sought to move away from the concept of culture as a fixed entity, a complex of ‘concrete behaviour patterns, customs, usages, traditions, habit clusters’. (Geertz 1973:87)

Instead they have sought to stress the role of individuals over and above that of groups in forming patterns of personal cultures. Thus, culture is seen as a construct, which is neither fixed nor measurable, but dynamic: "...a living organism that is continually being constructed by individuals in the course of their day to day living." (Groome, 1996:5)

There is not now, nor has there ever been, such things as the Aboriginal culture, or the Torres Strait culture. Yet, lists of Aboriginal learning styles or Aboriginal behaviours continue to be made available to teachers. Such lists are problematic, in that they reinforce what is termed "essentialism", a notion that seeks to reduce Aboriginality to a few "essentials" or basic descriptors, usually based on traditional values. Often, the lists are then interpreted into practice as one of two approaches to teaching Indigenous students. Both approaches are dangerous. One approach denies urban Indigenous students any claims to having a characteristic identity; and the other approach proposes a generic Aboriginal culture or Torres Strait culture that anticipates certain behaviours of students. Both approaches result in Indigenous students being stereotyped and lumped together. Thus, schooling becomes a disempowering process that hampers students’ potential to learn and progress through their years of formal education. All students need to be accepted as individuals, and provided with educational opportunities accordingly.

With the notion of a range of cultures, comes values, lifestyles and language use, with implications for current practices of English literacy testing. Some questions we need to ask ourselves are: Who determines appropriate standards for English literacy? Which version of English is being tested? (Each of us uses a number of versions of English language on a regular basis.)

If culture is an individual construct, then it is linked with the issue of identity.

The issue of identity

As educators, we know that the critical period for the formation of identity is childhood and adolescence, which means that in both primary and secondary schools our interactions with students can influence the ways in which those students individually construct their identities. We can "make or break" them as students and, in the longer term, may influence their potential to become contributing members of society. We have either witnessed, or learned by "trial and error" in our early years of teaching, the "self-fulfilling prophecy" of students assuming behaviours that reflect our words and actions. If we continually tell students they are slow learners or "stupid" or "dumb"; or that they are disinterested or "don’t care"; or that they are disruptive or "no good"; then they will often react by behaving in accordance with our attitudes towards them. Alternatively, students who are encouraged, and their efforts praised and rewarded, will usually develop and grow as learners and as people. Aboriginal children need to develop pride in themselves. They need positive support to overcome negative self-concept and self-esteem. (Groome, 1995:14) The starting point is, of course, to recognise the identities and backgrounds of all students, and demonstrate that we value the life experiences they bring to the learning situation. For Aboriginal students and Torres Strait Islander students, this means accepting them for who they are. But how do we do this? Who is an Aboriginal student or a Torres Strait Island student?

'… It's a matter of who your relations are, who grows you up and who knows you. It has to do with who you are and what you feel; it has to do with family, and a lot to do with community and friends. It has to do with the kinds of things we do as Aboriginal people [and Torres Strait Islander people] - not with what you look like.
Coghill, L, Ketchell J, Martin, K & Price, K (1997)

The Commonwealth government definition has three criteria relating to Indigenous identity, all of which must be met. An individual must -

• be an Aboriginal person or a Torres Strait Island person, or a descendent of Aboriginal people or Torres Strait Islands’ people; and
• must identify as an Aboriginal person or a Torres Strait Island person; and
• be recognised as such by their respective Aboriginal or Torres Strait Island community.

The definition contains no reference to physical appearance or to geographic location or lifestyle. Yet, in educational settings we continue to hear statements such as, "They say they’re Aboriginal, but they don’t look it."; and "They’re not really Aboriginal - they live in a nice house; the parents have good jobs and drive cars; they’re just the same as any suburban family." ; and " It’s only the ones in the desert and the north who are the true Aborigines (or Torres Strait Islanders).". These examples are verbal expressions of attitudes and actions that not only deny students’ identities, but tell us more about the speaker than the subject. Unless we, as educators, attempt to examine our own prejudices and correct such statements, our inaction serves to confirm that

"...the major social scientific paradigms that have shaped education for non-white children and adults have, in part, been influenced by the racial identity development of educators themselves." (Carter and Goodwin, 1994:307).

We are thus guilty of contributing to the further disempowerment of Indigenous students in a system that has relentlessly perpetuated the myths and stereotypes that have abounded in this country since British occupation.

The issue of power

Education inequality is related to unequal power relationships. Within the structure of Australian society, Indigenous people are often referred as "the lowest rung on the ladder", which demonstrates the relationship between power and race. Our children become aware of this at a very early age.

As they travel, shop and watch TV, Aboriginal children begin to meet a world in which they rarely see Aboriginal faces. Most become aware of hostility towards them and their family in many settings. This awareness of a different world is dramatically confirmed when they first attend school. Suddenly they are in a new, overwhelming, environment in which they are very clearly a minority, and sometimes a despised one. Racism has many faces and it is rare to find a school in which several are not displayed.
(Groome, 1995:20)

There are many levels of power. At the macro level, Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islander people know that in a world where power is linked to financial wealth, they possess little of perceived value; consequently, as groups within the current social strata, they have no bargaining power and little say in directions for the future of this country.

Schools, however, are in an unusual position in this regard. On one hand, schools (education generally) reflect and reproduce social values, lifestyles, etc: yet schools can also develop in students the knowledge and skills to contribute to social change and justice, hence the power of pedagogy and of curriculum. Keeffe (1992:8) writes of the...negative and positive force... of curriculum as ...something which both works on and through people....its mode of operation (viewed) as both enabling and constraining. He adds that: Only such a sense of power is capable of viewing cultural change from two perspectives, those of the relatively powerful and the relatively powerless. Michael Fullan (1993) considers that educational reform can do much to influence the dynamic of social change, and as educators, we can each play a part as agents of that process.

Factors intrinsic and extrinsic to the school

Major factors intrinsic to the school that impact on Indigenous students have been discussed under the broader headings of culture, identity and power. Factors that have been labelled ‘extrinsic’ are that are outside the control of educators, such as:

• current issues and media coverage; for example,

- the Wik debate and Native Title issues generally, and the negative comments of people perceived to be leaders in political, legal and industrial spheres; - damaged relationships between the government and the Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation as well as the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission;

- the Royal Commission inquiry into ‘the stolen generations’ and the reluctance on the part of present governments to accept, endorse and recognise recommendations from the final report;

- headlines and debates concerning statements continually being made by Pauline Hanson;

• Aboriginal deaths in custody;
• the unacceptable living conditions in Indigenous communities;
• extremely high unemployment rates (up to 90 per cent in some areas); and
• Indigenous health issues - the mortality of Indigenous people is ...about 3.5 times greater than expected for males and about 4 times greater than expected for females, based on comparisons with non-Indigenous rates. The differences were most pronounced among adults of working age, especially those aged 25-54 years, for whom there were 6-8 times the expected number of deaths. (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1994:1)

While individuals cannot do a great deal about many of these issues directly, it is important to acknowledge that they impact on all Australians, particularly Indigenous communities, and are often the foundations of racist comments and actions within schools. What is needed, is to heighten awareness of such racism and develop, in ourselves and our students, strategies for dealing with it.

This leads us to factors that we can influence - those that are intrinsic to the school. Many have been mentioned, but for clarification, the major factors are:

• Teacher/staff attitudes towards Indigenous students, their families and communities.

Our attitudes affect the way we communicate, but we seldom take the time to reflect on how we think about issues and why we feel a certain way about people. For those who work with Indigenous students, it may be helpful to self-reflect by asking, for example:
- What do I feel about Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders?

- Do I recognise and value the identity and culture of each student?

- Do I treat Indigenous students differently from non-Indigenous students? How?

- Am I sincere when I communicate with Indigenous people or am I adopting a role?

- Do I have empathy for Indigenous people and interest in their cultures?

- Why is this particular issue important to me?

- When I list items to be followed up with parents, do they include the student’s achievements as well as ‘problems’......are the items relevant to the student’s wellbeing or just things that frustrate me personally?

• Teacher expectations of Indigenous students. Expectations are often based on attitudes.

Most students will try to succeed if they feel that they are valued, and their teachers expect them to succeed. To a very large extent, the self-fulfilling prophecy discussed earlier applies to this situation. If, as teachers, we genuinely recognise the abilities of individual students, and set out to utilise and develop those abilities further, then students are likely to respond. Unfortunately, most of today’s teachers are products of a system that has continually presented the myth that Indigenous people lack the ability and intelligence to undertake academic study, or that their ‘disadvantage’ calls for remedial or compensatory measures.

• Curriculum relevance All students respond to curriculum studies that are inclusive of them - a curriculum that is relevant to and their experiences/backgrounds.

Conclusion

The overarching issues of culture, identity and power apply to all of us in different ways, but for Anglo-Australian students and teachers, these issues are not as obvious as they are for people of other cultures. Currently there are broad political, economic and social factors that impact on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students and communities. While these are mostly extrinsic to schools, the consequent racism is often evident among the general community, including students and school staff. Teachers can develop in their students, ways to identify and address such racism.

Factors that are intrinsic to the school include attitudes, expectations and curriculum. Documented ‘good practice’ for teaching is one that is based on recognising each student as an individual, valuing their life experiences and developing their knowledge and skills accordingly. Teaching Aboriginal students and Torres Strait Islander students requires the same methods. Such practice will enhance the concept of partnerships in the business of educating for the future.
 

References

Australian Bureau of Statistics (1994). Mortality of Indigenous Australians. Occasional paper. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.  

Carter Robert T and Goodwin A Lin (1994). Chapter 7 ‘Racial identity and education’. In Review of research in education, Volume 20. Edited by Linda Darling-Hammond. Washington: American Educational Research Association. (Page 307)  

Coghill, L, Ketchell J, Martin, K & Price, K (1997) Preface to Footprints … to country, kin and cultures. Melbourne: Curriculum Corporation   Fullan, Michael (1993) Change forces: probing the depths of education reform. London: Falmer Press.  

Groome, Howard (1995) Working purposefully with Aboriginal students. Wentworth Falls, NSW: Social Science Press. (Pages 14 &20)   Groome, Howard (1996) What is this thing called "culture". Unpublished paper. (Page 4)  

Keefe, Kevin (1992) From the centre to the city: Aboriginal education, culture and power. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press. (Page 8)  

Lippman, L (1976) Aborigines and education. Clayton, Victoria: Centre for Research into Aboriginal Affairs.  

Rowley, C D (1972) The destruction of Aboriginal society. Ringwood, Australia: Penguin Books.

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© Penny Tripcony/Kaye Price, Oodgeroo Unit, QUT. LEB335, Week 6, Semester 2, 1999